Background Information on the Spanish American War

During the 19th century Americans began spreading west to acquire cheap land. Politicians called this expansion Manifest Destiny and described it as American God-given right to expand westward. The ideology of manifest destiny greatly contributed to the Mexican-American war, when the United States acquired present-day California, New Mexico, Arizona and Texas. A central element of manifest destiny was the belief that Anglo-Saxon Americans were racially and culturally superior and had a moral imperative to spread their beliefs to those whose views were different. Just as Manifest Destiny set precedence for American expansion, the Monroe Doctrine was the U.S.’s foundation for controlling European expansion. It set a cultural basis for U.S. foreign policy by stating that the American continents were no longer open to colonization by European powers. The Monroe Doctrine laid grounds for American views on European Imperialism. American foreign policy was against European expansion and territorial control in the western hemisphere.

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Unlike Europeans, Americans did not view themselves as imperialists. Instead they disagreed with the general principles of imperialism because it was contradictory to Americans’ notions of democracy. However, American ethics changed during the Spanish American war when they found themselves in a position to use imperialism to their financial advantage. By taking on new territories, America opened up new trade markets that benefited all classes of American citizens.

The Spanish American War began as an attempt to liberate Cuba from Spanish imperialists. The war unofficially began when the U.S. battleship Maine exploded and sank off the coast of Cuba, killing nearly 270 men. Americans were not truly against Spain until journalists such as William Hearst inflamed American opinion by publishing fictitious articles blaming the Spanish for the Maine disaster. In response, the Spanish denied any responsibility for the tragedy, and refused to apologize or provide condolences. It was discovered during a later investigation that the destruction of the Maine was the

result of an underwater mine. The basis for Americans entering the war in part came from the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the western hemisphere should remain free from colonization from European powers; furthermore any attempt by Europe to extend power to the Americas should be seen as a threat to peace.

On April 11, President McKinley asked Congress to declare war against Spain. Without waiting for an answer from Congress, McKinley started mobilizing the U.S. military. Instead of declaring war, Congress passed the Teller Amendment, which stated that the United States would not annex Cuba. By April 19, Congress officially declared Cuba independent from United States possession or control. By not annexing Cuba, America showed the world they firmly rejected imperialist motives. The United States Congress knew that this was the time to act, and declared war on Spain.

Fighting began June 6, 1898 with the invasion of Guantanamo Bay by the U.S. Marines. The battle at Guantanamo Bay ended on June 10, 1898. Throughout the brief conflict, the American military demonstrated its naval superiority over the Spanish; it was not until July 1 that the U.S. army displayed ground dominance in the Battle of El Caney and the Battle of San Juan Hill. During these battles, roughly 1,200 Americans and 593 Spanish soldiers lost their lives. The Americans’ decisive defeat of the Spanish can be largely attributed to the U.S. Navy’s ability to control the waters around Cuba, thus preventing Spanish reinforcements. The majority of combat between the U.S. and Spain was completed within a month of starting. The combat did not last long primarily because American troops were not involved in any other battles and focused their military presence on the conflict, and the Spanish Navy had been weakened from fighting the Cubans since 1896.

With the Spanish Navy out of the picture, the United States attitudes towards imperialism shifting, the acquisition of the Philippines became a primary goal of U.S. foreign policy. The United States had originally declared war against Spain as an ally of the Filipino Nationalist Movement. American diplomats met with the Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo, and declared their intent to free the Philippines from Spanish imperialism. To successfully take the Philippines from Spain, troops were needed. Commodore George Dewey sent a message to Washington D.C. requesting 5,000 ground troops. The War Department responded to the request by sending around 11,300 troops. Major General Wesley Merritt was chosen to lead the ground troops when they arrived at Manila. Upon arrival, it became apparent to the United States troops that the Spanish troops wished to surrender, but wished to do so in a way that the honor of Spain would remain intact. To achieve this goal, Fermin Jaudenes, the last Spanish Governor of the islands, met with the United States commanders to devise a mock battle. The United States agreed not to bombard the city of Manila, while the Spanish would put up only a minimal resistance. This was the point when the Americans turned against their allies, the Filipinos, and made agreements with Spain for the control of the country. By the end of the war, the U.S. had become an imperialistic nation. The United States government freed the Philippines from Spanish rule, and in turn imposed U.S. rule. 

There were several reasons for this dramatic shift in U.S. foreign policy. The philosophy of Manifest Destiny allowed many Americans to view the Philippines as a country full of racially inferior people unable to govern themselves. The U.S. government changed their ideologies to incorporate new commercial goals, particularly opening Asian markets to U.S. trade. 

As fighting continued, Spanish and American diplomats conducted peace talks in Paris. McKinley joined the talks with the hope that American involvement in the Philippines would be limited; however, American citizens’ strong political voice forced McKinley to make America a key figure in the peace talks. McKinley emphasized the responsibility of the nation to expand into Spanish territory. This argument reflected ideas of nationalism, manifest destiny and the perceived need for commercial expansion. A Spanish delegation had little rebuttal and accepted McKinley’s offer. The Treaty of Paris was signed on December 10th 1898, and Spain surrendered the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam, in exchange for 25 million U.S. dollars. Although a commission of Filipinos had traveled to Paris to participate in the peace talks, they were unable to participate. Spanish and Americans refused to allow them to participate. McKinley sent the treaty to the U.S. Senate where it passed with a 57 to 27 vote. 

Before the Senate treaty vote, President McKinley issued The Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation. This proclamation stated that American citizens had the responsibility of educating, civilizing and strengthening the Filipinos. The Filipinos were angry because they had hoped that the United States would help the Philippines gain independence from Spain. When the Filipinos learned the terms of the Treaty of Paris they became even more outraged. Emilio Aguinaldo, leader of the Filipino resistance against Spain, urged his forces to not attack American forces. Aguinaldo hoped that with the new independence from Spain, the Philippines could become and independent country. He even drafted a constitution, modeled on the U.S. constitution. However, on February 4, 1899, an American soldier shot and killed a Filipino solider; the American’s excuse was that the Filipino was making fun of him. Infuriated by the shooting, Filipinos began attacking American soldiers. This began the Philippine-American War, which lasted until 1903 and was followed by many years of American occupation in the Philippines.

Cuba gained its independence in 1902 when the United States passed the Platt Amendment. However, the U.S. still forced restrictions on the new Cuba, including barring them from forming alliances with any other country. The American government enforced this by constantly involving themselves in Cuban political agendas. In addition, the U.S. interfered in Cuban relations with other countries and established a naval base, Guantanamo Bay, on the island as U.S. territory, which is still used today. 

Most historians agree that the Spanish American war was the United States’ first step toward imperialism. The war with Spain began as an attempt to free Cuba from Spain’s imperialistic domination; however, it turned into a dispute over land and political ideas. Modern historians relate the Spanish American war to the Vietnam War because the Spanish American war began as a fight against imperialism and Vietnam began as a war against communism. Both are prime examples of American foreign policy changing during times of war. The political and cultural ideas that spread throughout the 19th century during the Spanish American war continue to thrive in modern day America.